Introduction

List of Tables

    1.      Major peaks and lakes in the Indian Himalayan region (IHR).

2. Major glaciers in the Indian Himalaya.

3. Seismic zonation of the IHR states.
4. Agro-climatic zonations in the IHR.
5. Diversity of medicinal plants of the IHR.
6. Rare-endangered medicinal plants of the IHR recorded in the RDB of the Indian plants.
7. Major land use distribution pattern in the IHR.
8. Principal glacial-fed river systems of the Himalaya.
9. Statewise water resource in the IHR.
10. Tribal situation in the IHR.

1. Indian Himalayan region (IHR).
2. Geologic - Tectonic map of the Himalaya, modified after Le Fort (1988).
3. Simplified cross-section of the north-western Himalaya showing the main tectonic units and structural elements.
4. Seismic zonation map of India.
5. Altitudinal distribution of diversity of medicinal plants of the IHR.
6. Distribution of agricultural land across the IHR.
7. Distribution of glaciers along the Himalayan arc.
8. Distribution of tribal population in the India and in the IHR.

The mountain resources are finite, dispersed and need to be managed carefully. Both, human and natural resources in the mountain can be quantified from the facts originating from the real world data. Therefore, proper analyses of finite resources based on real data may lead to implement effective plan for sustainable use of the same in the mountain regions.  Development concerns in the Himalaya also revolve around how resources of the region could be managed for conserving/improving the environmental values of the region together with socio-economic development of the people (Rao, 1997; Samal et al., 2003).

The Himalaya comprises a series of parallel and converging ranges forming the highest mountain region in the world. More than 30 peaks of the Himalaya rise to the heights of 7,620 m (25,000 ft) or more, and one of these, Mount Everest (8,848 m) is the world's highest mountain. The Hindu-Kush Himalaya (HKH) mountain chain extending over 3,500 km length across the countries of Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar, cover an area of about 43 lakh km². This region is generally considered underdeveloped in the respective countries and though rich in natural resources, the status of infrastructure development, which contributes to the livelihood status, is also poor. 

The Indian Himalayan region (IHR) with 250-300 km across stretches over 2,500 km from Jammu & Kashmir in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east spreading between 21 ^o 57' – 37 ^o 5' N latitudes and 72 ^o 40' – 97 ^o 25' E longitudes. This great chain of mountains in Indian territory extends all along the northern border of the country from the eastern border of Paskistan on the west to the frontiers of Myanmar in the east covering partially/fully twelve states of India, viz., Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya and hills of Assam & West Bengal (Figure 1). The region has a total geopraphical area of about 5,33,604 km² being inhabited by 3,96,28,311 people, representing about 16.2% of total area and 3.86% of total population of India, respectively. The region is vast, rugged and versatile. It supports remarkable cultural, ethnic and biological diversity. Multiple ethnic compositions are a striking feature of the region; more than 171 of total 573 scheduled tribes of India inhabit the region (Samal et al., 2000). Broadly divided into eastern Himalaya, central Himalaya and western Himalaya, each region has its rich cultural diversity. Ethnic spectra of central and western Himalaya differ conspicuously from that of the north eastern Himalaya. The region is characterized by mountain specificities viz. inaccessibility, fragile, marginality, diversity (heterogeneity), niche (natural suitability) and adaptability (Jodha, 1992). The region occupies the strategic position of entire northern boundary (North-West to North-East) of the nation and contains snow-clad peaks, glaciers of higher Himalaya and dense forest cover of mid-Himalaya.

Figure 1: Indian Himalayan region (IHR)

Physiography

            Physiographically, starting from the foothills of south (Siwaliks), this mountain range extends up to Tibetan plateau on the north (Trans-Himalaya). Three major geographical entities, the Himadri (greater Himalaya), Himanchal (lesser Himalaya) and the Siwaliks (outer Himalaya) extending almost uninterrupted throughout its length, are separated by major geological fault lines. Mighty but older streams like the Indus, Sutlej, Kali, Kosi and Brahmaputra have cut through steep gorges to escape into the Great Plains and have established their antecedence. The longitudinal valleys of the streams in their upper reaches occupy the troughs intervening the ranges. Himadri, the asymmetrical and the northern most range of glaciers and lofty snow peaks has a granitic core, flanked by metamorphosed sediments. The Himanchal forms the central chain of alternating ranges and valleys acquiring an elevation of about 5,000 m. It is composed mainly of highly compressed and altered rocks (Singh, 1991). The Siwaliks represent the outermost range of the system with roughly hogback appearance with a steeply sloping southern and gently sloping northern face. These newer and river-borne deposits derived from the rising Himalaya represent the most recent phase of the Himalayan orogeny.

The geology of the Himalaya is a record of the most dramatic and visible creations of modern plate tectonic forces. The Himalaya owes its origin to the collision between two continental tectonic plates (the peninsular India plate and the Eurasian plate) about 55 million year ago. This immense mountain range was formed by huge tectonic forces and sculpted by unceasing denudation processes of weathering and erosion (Dèzes, 1999). However, the Himalayan orogeny does not relate to a single event; the western part being more recent.

            Topographically, the belt has many superlatives: the highest rate of uplift (nearly 1 cm/year at Nanga Parbat, Pakistan), the highest relief (8848 m at Mt. Everest/Chomolangma, Tibet-Nepal), the source of some of the greatest rivers and the highest concentration of glaciers outside of the Polar Regions (Dèzes, 1999). Temporal and spatial variation caused by diversity in geological orogeny has resulted into a marked difference in climate and physiography and consequently in distribution pattern of biotic elements (Singh, 2004). One of the most striking aspects of the Himalayan orogen is the lateral continuity of its major tectonic elements. Since Blanford & Medlicott, 1879 and Heim & Gansser, 1939, the Himalaya is classically divided into four tectonic units than can be followed for more than 2400 km along the belt (Figure 2 and Figure 3) (Dèzes, 1999).

Figure 2: Geologic - Tectonic map of the Himalaya, modified after Le Fort (1988).

Figure 3: Simplified cross-section of the north-western Himalaya showing the main tectonic units and structural elements.

[Source : Dèzes, 1999]

Table 1: Major peaks and lakes in the Indian Himalayan region (IHR).

Sources: Jagran Varshiki, 1999

Official website of the Department of Tourism & Civil Aviation, Government of Himachal Pradesh (www.himachaltourism.nic.in)

            It is matter of concern that the Himalayan glaciers are receding at the fastest rates in the world due to global warming, threatening water shortage for millions of people particularly in India, China and Nepal. For instance, the Gangotri glacier is receding at an average rate of 23 metres per year (Anonymous, 2005).

        Table 2: Major glaciers in the Indian Himalaya.

Vulnerability and disaster proneness of the region

            The Himalayan frontal arc flanked by the Chaman fault in the west constitutes one of the most seismically active intra-continental regions in the world. The region in India is seismically one of the six most active regions of the world; the other five being Mexico, Tiwan, California, Japan and Turkey. The high seismicity in the region is attributed to the collision tectonics between the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate in the north and seduction tectonics along the Indo-Myanmar range in the east (Kayal, 1998). The proneness of a region to earthquake occurrence in the past and its probable occurrence in future is expressed in terms of seismicity. An accounting and analysis of temporal and spatial distribution of all earthquakes is pre-requisite for assessing in the seismic status of any region (Tiwari, 2002). The epicenter and magnitude range of earthquakes of different regions can be plotted on the maps and their relative concentration can be taken as one of the measures of seismicity. Various geographical parameters such as resistivity, magnetic gravity, etc., also reflect seismic status of a region.

Zone V: Covers the areas liable to seismic intensity IX and above on Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale. This is the most severe seismic zone and is referred here as Very High Damage Risk Zone.

Zone I: Here the maximum intensity is estimated as MM V or less. This zone is termed here as Very Low Damage Risk Zone.

Table 3: Seismic zonation of the IHR states.

     West Bengal hills falls in Zone IV.

     {Source : BIS Seismic zone 2000]

Note : The Maximum Intensity on Modified Mercalli Scale (MSK) considered for the Five Zones are MSK IX or more in Zone V; MSK VIII in Zone IV; MSK VII in Zone III; MSK VI in Zone II. In the revision of the seismic zones in year 2000, the Seismic Zone-I has been merged in Zone-II by BIS Seismic Zoning Committee, hence there are now four zones only (number II, III, IV and V).

Figure 4: Seismic zonation map of India.

[Source: Current Indian Seismic Zone Map (IS 1893-2001), IIT-Kanpur, 2003]

Agro-climatic zonation

            Broadly, the climatic zones in the Indian Himalayan region (IHR) are based on altitudinal gradient, which starts from warm sub-tropical (< 800m) to arctic zone (> 3,600m). Moreover, the strategy of agro-climatic planning aims at a more scientific utilization of available resources; both natural and man-made. India has been divided into 15 agro-climatic regions (zones)and is delineated on the basis of a commonality of agro-climatic factors like soil type, rainfall, temperature, water resources, etc. The IHR represents two agro-climatic zones, viz. Zone-I, the Western Himalayan region and Zone-II, the Eastern Himalayan region. The hill regions of Western and Eastern Himalayas have more diversity. The valleys receive good rainfall and have rich soils while the temperate areas of Ladakh of Western Himalaya and Sikkim and Darjeeling in Eastern Himalaya are seized with inadequate moisture and climatic barriers of limited crop growing period. High soil erosion reduces soil fertility and productivity.

 Table 4: Agro-climatic zonations in the IHR.

[Source: Agro-climatic Regional Planning, Planning Commission, 1989] 

            Zone I is characterized by low altitude sub-tropical region of south to mid to high temperate region in the mid-hills and extended to high hills on the north. The northern part of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir is cold arid. Zone II is characterized by hills and mountains of folded topography with near tropical to alpine climatic conditions. This is a high rainfall area and forests occupy more land, followed by barren land, leaving much smaller cultivable area. Shifting cultivation (Jhum) is practiced in nearly 1/3^rd of cultivated area and mainly food crops are raised for sustenance.

Dry alpine scrubs: These are alpine meadows occurring near the snowline in the drier parts of the Himalaya, usually in the inner dry valleys of the higher Himalaya and in the trans-Himalayan zones. Vegetation is xerophytic.  

Biodiversity

           India has a rich heritage of species and genetic strains of flora and fauna but growing population and urbanization are causing decrease of natural habitats resulting in the loss of biological diversity. About 6% of world plant species are found in India and it is estimated that the country is tenth among the plant rich countries and sixth among the centres of diversity and origin of agrodiversity in the world (Anonymous, 2000).

                The climate and consequently the biological communities vary considerably along the altitudinal gradients in the IHR giving a heterogeneous dispersion of biodiversity elements in the region (Singh, 2004). The eastern Himalaya (north-east region in India) is one among the total 12 biodiversity hot spots in the world with extremely high plant biodiversity at national as well as global level. The IHR, as a whole, supports nearly 50% of the total flowering plants of India, of which 30% are endemic to the region. The IHR supports about 8,000 species of angiosperms (40% endemics), 44 species of gymnosperms (15.91% endemics), 600 species of pteridophytes (25% endemics), 1,737 species of bryophytes (32.53%

endemics), 1,159 species of lichens (11.22% endemics) and 6,900 species of fungi (27.39% endemics) (Singh and Hajra, 1996). The richness of plant diversity is also due to the occurrence of species of other biogeographic regions like Irano-Turanian, Mediterranean, Indo-Chinese, Indian, Malaysian, Eastern Asiatic, Circumboreal, Australian, Amazonian, Brazilian, Andean, North American and others (Chatterjee, 1939; Samant and Dhar, 1997). There are over 816 tree species, 675 edibles and nearly 1,743 species of medicinal value found in the IHR (Samant et al., 1998).

                The diversity of plant species used in various ailments is dispersed all across the IHR (Samal et al., 2002, Samal et al., 2004). Due to cultural and ethnic diversity in different biogeographic provinces of the region, the knowledge base varies considerably (Maikhuri et al., 1998; Dhyani, 2000). Most of the medicinal plants are being extracted for drug and pharmaceutical industries from wild populations. This has adversely affected the very existence of a number of plants of high commercial value (Farooquee and Saxena, 1996). Further, with the increasing world demand and renewed global interest in traditional ethnopharmacy coupled with the increasing preference for natural substances in the health care system, the natural stock of medicinal plants of the IHR is under tremendous pressure (Samant et al., 1998; Dhyani and Kala, 2005; Kala et. al., 2006).

            In India over 2,500 species of ethnobotanical uses are known (Jain, 1991). In the IHR, about 1,748 species of medicinal uses belonging to three taxonomic groups i.e., angiosperms (191 families, 878 genera and 1,685 species), gymnosperms (4 families, 6 genera and 12 species) and pteridophytes (28 families, 31 genera and 51 species) have been recorded (Samant et al., 1998). Of the total plants, the species richness is maximum in herbs (1,020 spp.) followed by trees (339 spp.), shrubs (338 spp.) and pteridophytes (51 spp.) (Table 5). Considering the species richness within the families, the family Asteraceae (129 spp.) is at the top followed by Fabaceae (107 spp.), Ranunculaceae (48 spp.), Rosaceae (41 spp.), Poaceae (40 spp.), Orchidaceae (37 spp.), Polygonaceae (32 spp.) and Gentianaceae (27 spp.) (Samant et al., 1998).

Table 5: Diversity of medicinal plants of the IHR

[Source: Samant et al., 1998] 

            The environmental factors and topography play important role in speciation. In the context of IHR, high mountain peaks and deep river valleys together with other environmental factors, such as altitude, play important role in the range restriction/speciation.

            The altitudinal distribution and utilization patterns of medicinal plants of the IHR are presented in Figure 3. The maximum diversity of medicinal plants exists in zone < 1,800 m (1,417 spp.). The diverse habitats and mild climatic conditions support the richness of biological resources and human habitations with diverse cultures and communities. Hence,

the plethora of knowledge of plant species used in medicine is also maximum in the Indian Himalayan region (Samant and Dhar, 1997; Samant et al., 1998).

Figure 5: Altitudinal distribution of diversity of medicinal plants of the IHR.

              [Source: Samant et al., 1998]

                The rich biological diversity of IHR has been put to use by the native communities from ancient times. The very survival of these resources is now under threat from rapidly expanding human population and concomitant environmental degradation occurring at a fast pace. There are major gaps in the knowledge of biological resources and the means by which biological diversity is maintained (Heywood, 1995). Using IUCN criteria, about 121 species have been recorded in the Red Data Book (RDB) of Indian plants from the IHR, of these 17 are medicinal plants (Nayar and Shastri, 1987, 1988, 1990) and are presented in Table 6.

Table 6: Vulnerable, rare and endangered medicinal plants of the IHR recorded in the RDB of the Indian plants.

        [Source: Samant et al., 1998]

Apart from the use of species as medicine, different parts such as roots, tubers, fruits, flowers, seeds and leaves/fronds of over 200 species of medicinal plants are consumed either raw, roasted, boiled, fried, cooked or in the from of oil, spice and seasoning materials, jams, pickles, etc. Most species form supplementary/substitute food at the time of scarcity (Dhyani and Khali, 1993; Dhyani and Dhar, 1994; Samant and Dhar, 1997; Dhyani, 2000). A few examples of such species are: Ficus spp., Madhuca longifolia, Myrica esculenta, Rubus spp., Berberis spp., Fragaria vesca, Prunus cerasoides, P. cornuta, Emblica officinalis, Terminalia bellirica, Syzygium spp., Zizyphus spp. (fruits), Dioscorea bulbifefa, Angelica glauca, A. nubegina, Pleurospermum angelicoides, Polygonatum spp., Chenopodium album, Fagopyrum debotrys and Alliums spp., etc. The nutritional value of most of these species is comparable with cultivated species (Dhyani and Khali, 1993; Dhyani and Dhar, 1994; Samant and Dhar, 1997).

            Many medicinal plants in the IHR have multipurpose use and about 81 medicinal plant species are also the source of important fatty and essential oils used for edible as well as industrial purposes. There are a number of species of medicinal plants in the IHR which are in trade. Some major species are: Aconitum heterophyllum, Emblica officinalis, Terminalia chebula, T. bellirica, Allium stracheyi, A. humile, Angelica glauca, Juglans regia, Paris polyphylla, Zanthoxylum armatum, Coptis teeta, Saussurea costus, Panax pseudoginseng, Podophyllum hexandrum and Cinnamomum tamala, etc. (Samant et al., 1998).

            Areas rich in biodiversity and encompassing unique and representative ecosystems are identified and designated as Biosphere Reserves. Nanda Devi (Uttaranchal), Nokrek (Meghalaya), Dehang-Debang (Arunachal Pradesh) and Kangchendzonga (Sikkim) are the biosphere reserves in the IHR.

Faunal diversity

            The eastern Himalayan sub-zone forms the dense evergreen and semi-evergreen vegetation of the foothills. The animal life in the temperate region is different from the western Himalaya and is characterized by the presence of Indo-Chinese fauna. The red panda, hog badgers, ferret badgers, crestless porcupines are the typical species of this area. Three kinds of goat antelopes are also found in the eastern Himalaya and are relatives of the European chamois. Serow is a goat like animal with a black coat, large ears, white beard and a grayish mane. It lives mostly in the eastern Himalayan forests around 2,000 m altitude and extends into tropics of Malaya and Sumatra where it is found at lower altitudes on steep limestone outcrops. Goral is a smaller goat found throughout the Himalayan range both in the western and eastern Himalaya, living on rugged grassy hill sites and on rocky grounds near the conifer forests. Takins are the largest of the goat antelopes and live in the eastern Himalayan forests near the timberline. In summer, large herds graze above the timberline but in winter, the animals break up into smaller groups and migrate to grassy valleys lower down the mountains.

Agricultural situation of IHR 

country’s land use pattern, the agricultural land constitutes the major share occupying about 55.8% of total geographical area followed by forest cover (20.6%) and wastelands (20.2%). However, the Indian Himalayan region (IHR) displays a different picture in land use pattern and its dependency on agricultural land. The Himalayan people have traditionally practiced integrated agriculture, balancing cultivation, agro-forestry, animal husbandry and forestry. Mountain geography and inaccessibility have helped maintain agri-biodiversity; yet commercial agriculture is not as high-yielding and profitable as in the plains. Here forest is the major land use pattern, which covers over 52% of total reporting area followed by wastelands and agricultural land. However, the dependency on its limited arable land is marginally higher in the IHR as cultivators and agricultural labourers together comprise about 59% of total workforce in the region (Nandy and Samal, 2005).

Figure 6: Distribution of agricultural land across the IHR

                                       [Source : Nandy and Samal, 2005]

Land and water resources

Land resources

Agriculture is the major land use at the national level followed by forests. But in the IHR, forest cover is the major land use, which covers about 52% of the total reporting area of the region followed by wastelands. The forest cover in the region has recorded marginal increase (about 0.41%) during the period 1999-2001 where as the country’s forest cover has recorded a significant growth (about 6%) during the same period in spite of rapid urbanization. This could be because of high dependency on forest in the IHR than the arable land that contributes only about 11% of its total reporting area.

Table 7: Major land use distribution pattern in the IHR.

*Included 78,114 and 37,555 km² occupied by Pakistan and China, respectively, and 5,180 km² handed over by Pakistan to China.

[Source : Westelands Atlus of India 2000 & FSI 2000] 

Water resources

            India is rich in surface water resources. Average annual precipitation is nearly 4,000 km³ and average flow in the river system is estimated to be 1,880 km³ (Anonymous, 2000). The IHR has vast fresh water resources primarily in its streams/rivers, lakes and glaciers. The region yields about 500 cm³ water every year. Fluctuations in snow and ice cover are responsible for climate and hydrological variation to a great extent.  

large catchment of Himachal Pradesh and entire Uttaranchal. In the eastern part, the Brahmaputra river system drains a considerable area of the Tibet and North Bengal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh in the IHR.

Table 8: Principal glacial-fed river systems of the Himalaya.

Major glacial fed rivers such as Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra along with the distribution of glaciers in Himalayan region are sown below.

Figure 7: Distribution of glaciers along the Himalayan arc.

      [Source: Hasnain, 1999]

Table 9: Statewise water resource in the IHR

[Source: Hand book on Fisheries Statistics 1996, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation and Ground Water Statistics 1996, Central Ground Water Board]

Mcm: Million cubic Metres

Water bodies include reservoirs, lakes, ponds, tanks, beels and oxbow, etc.

Data for the hill districts of Assam and West Bengal are not available separately.

Social Communities in IHR 

Societies are discrete formations of people, enduring entities that take time to emerge within the bounds of specific territory and political organization.  Expression of identity by various groups of people based on language, territory, religion, common origin and a host of other cultural elements are all comparatively more ephemeral than societies. While ethnicity and ethnic movements are processes dependent on mobilization of cultural resources, societies are entities that have temporal continuity. Ethnic self-consciousness and its consolidation and asserting along the lines of tribe, community or language groups have become increasingly manifest in the recent years in the entire region.  In every one of the eight north-eastern states of India that make up the north-eastern region (NER), there is a comic perception of who constitute the `insiders’ and who are `outsiders’ vying for the limited number of jobs and other assets and resources of the respective territories. Regionalism along social and ethnic lines has been a dominant development in the years since independence (Anonymous, 2002). However, Sikkim a new inclusion to the NER is small (in terms of area as well as population) and multi-ethnic state. Broadly, the population of the state can be divided into tribal and non-tribal groups, where Nepalese ethnic group is predominant.

Multiple ethnic composition is a striking feature of Himalayan realm. There are numerous tribal groups confined to the Indian Himalayan region. Population size and distribution of different ethnic groups greatly varies. Among smaller groups, Raji tribe of Kumaon (in Uttaranchal) is represented by only about 531 individuals (Samal et al., 2001). Ethnic spectra of central and western Himalaya differs conspicuously from that of the north-eastern region. Racially, majority of tribal communities, particularly those in north-eastern region, exhibit ‘mongoloid’ affiliation as could be observed from the physical features of the

people. In western and central Indian Himalaya, ‘Khasa’ ethnic characteristics are more conspicuous.

The Indian Himalayan region (IHR) can be divided into following regional divisions based on population features and vegetation elements: 

1.  Western Himalaya               3.  Eastern Himalaya                             4.  Himachal Himalaya

     (Kashmir Himalaya)                 (Arunachal Pradesh  including           5. Purvanchal Himalaya

2.  Central Himalaya                      Sikkim & Darjeeling Hills)

     (Uttaranchal)                                                                                                                      

The Western Himalaya: Culturally, the Himalayan region of Kashmir is a zone of convergence and diffusion expression in three religeo-cultural streams – the Muslims, Buddhists (Tibeto-Mongoloids) and Hindus. These culture groups still maintain their regional expression in three distinct parts of the region: the Gilgit, Baltistan and Poonch region is overwhelmingly Muslim; Ladakh is predominantly Buddhist; while Jammu is mainly Hindu.

The Himachal Himalaya: The semi-arid highland zone of Himachal Himalaya, trans-Himalayan tracts of Lahaul & Spiti and Kinnaur have a low population and are mainly inhabited by Buddhists (Tibetan), while the other parts of Himachal Pradesh are mainly inhabited by Hindus. 

The Central Himalaya: The Central Himalayan region has its own distinctiveness, reflecting the sublime blend of Indian cultural traits associated with the Badrinath-Gangotri complex, which has absorbed Mongoloid cults into Hindu moulds. Culturally Uttaranchal Himalaya is largely dominated by the local Pahari (Kumauni & Garhwali) culture in the middle and low altitudes, while in the northern high-altitude valleys, the Bhotia cultural system predominates. The population is predominantly Hindu.

The Eastern Himalaya: The Eastern Himalaya region comprising Arunanchal Pradesh, Sikkim and Darjeeling Hills of West Bengal has been populated by hardy Indo-Mongoloid, Tibetan, and Nepalese people who have adapted themselves to the rugged terrain and the rigorous climate. Mongoloid tribes from Tibet, Indo-Aryan people from north India, and the Lepchas from Assam and upper Burma have settled in the Himalayan valleys and developed distinct cultural patterns. The Buddhist and Lamaistic religion and culture are found throughout the region with the exception of Darjeeling district of West Bengal, which comprises people of various races and religions. 

The Purvanchal: In the Purvanchal Himalaya, the majority of tribes follow their animistic religious traditions, while some tribes like Naga, Khasi, Mizo, a section of Bodo and few others have embraced Christianity. The process of Hinduizisation is also operative among some groups of Bodo, Hajong, Garo, and Rabha, etc. Buddhism retains its hold on some tribes like Monpa, Sherdukpen, Khampti and Singhpho. The Naga population and culture is predominant in Nagaland, while to the south there is a distinct socio-cultural pattern, characterized as Manipuri culture.

Scheduled tribe population 

The Indian Himalayan region represents nearly 18.5 per cent of the total tribal population of India. As many as 171 of total 573 (Table 10) scheduled tribes of India inhabit the region. The tribal populace of the IHR, generally, inhabits inhospitable terrains where the soil productivities are low. Shifting cultivation and dry upland cultivation are traditionally the most important sources of livelihood of majority of tribal communities. In the IHR, the percentage of ST population (28.16%) is much higher (excluding the ST population of Jammu & Kashmir) than that of the country’s total tribal population (8.13%). The contribution of scheduled tribe population of IHR is 9.46% (excluding the ST population of Jammu & Kashmir) to the country’s ST population.

Table 10: Tribal situation in the IHR.

Figure 8: Distribution of tribal population in India

                                                       [Source: Samal et al., 2000]

Scheduled caste population 

The Scheduled Caste (SC) population in India constitutes about 16.33% of India’s total population. In the IHR, the percentage of SC population is 13.49% (excluding the SC population of Jammu & Kashmir), which is lower than the national figure (16.33%). Among the states of IHR, the percentage share of SC population is highest in Himachal Pradesh (42.71). However, north-eastern states have least SC Population.

R&D projects funding in IHR

The research and development (R&D) projects funding in the Indian Himalayan region is inadequate. Almost 5.28% projects (out of total R&D projects) were implemented in the IHR from 1985-86 to 1998-99 with a fund allocation of 4.45% of the total R&D budget of the country (Samal et al., 2005).